Saadia Gaon is a philosopher who made things explicitly clear in his writing. He explains not only his own views and ideas, but also makes certain to refute as many opposing arguments as possible. This means of argumentation which Saadia prefers is exceedingly apparent in Treatise VI of his Book of Doctrines and Beliefs, in which he discusses the substance, function, and nature of the soul. In previous chapters, he outlined four roots of knowledge, namely knowledge from sense perception, knowledge through speculation and Reason, inferential knowledge, and knowledge from Scripture. In discussing his point, Saadia systematically breaks down the opposing argument using information gathered from these four roots. In Treatise VI, he addresses first the arguments of other beliefs, and then turns to his own postulation, giving the reader a very clear idea of what he is talking about.
The first point of contention arises in relation to those who think the soul as an accident, that is, a substance or form which is contingent on something else. Saadia breaks these people down further into five subcategories, each with a different interpretation of the theory. Saadia says of the different groups, “Some of them believe that the soul is a self-moving number. Others believe that it constitutes the completion of the natural body… it consists of a combination of the four elements… a juncture of the senses… [or] an accident originating from the blood.” He also details a theory of the dualism of the soul, in which it is believed to consist of, “two parts, one of which is intellectual, rational, intransient… while the other is the source of vitality that is spread over the rest of the body and of a transient nature.”
In total, these six theories represent the body of incorrect arguments which are to be addressed in Treatise VI. Carefully refuting these theories is an important part of Saadia's argumentation. In previous chapters, he established the four roots of knowledge and the means by which we can discern truth from falsehood. He then uses those roots as the foundation for reason out a point or counter-point in other areas of discussion, building a solid edifice of his philosophy. For example, in considering the theories of the accidental nature of the soul, he relies on speculation and inferential knowledge, writing that, “One accident could not be the bearer of another… Yet we find that the soul is the bearer of many accidents.” He goes on further to compare wicked souls and pure souls, and utilizes the root of Scripture, quoting from Deuteronomy, Leviticus, and Genesis to refute the opposing viewpoint. Sensory perception is the only root inapplicable to a discussion of the soul, save knowledge of the lack thereof.
Saadia's relationship with biblical tradition is interesting and worthy of note, as Scripture is incredibly important in his arguments. He frowns upon biblical purists, those who insist upon the literal truth of the Torah. Instead he favors a more metaphorical interpretation, which supports his philosophy. Scripture forms a part of the basis of his philosophy, yet he is more open-minded about its meaning. In fact, he manages to reconcile his beliefs with the words of the Torah quite well, such as in the refutation mentioned above, as well as throughout Chapter 2 and further. Chapter 2 is actually where Saadia takes the time to reestablish for this Treatise a precedent for his interpretation of Scripture; he also shows again that the soul has accidents and hence cannot itself be an accident, as well as setting things up to discuss how the soul is affected by good deeds and wisdom or sin and wickedness.
Saadia's views on the nature of the soul are very specific. Firstly, the soul is something created, and it is created at the same time as the body. It is of a substance similar, but not identical to that of the celestial sphere, and has the potential to become more pure through receiving God's light. He says that, “obedience [to God's commandments] increases the luminosity of the soul's substance, whereas sin renders its substance turbid and black.” He also believes that the soul is what allows the body its faculties of cognition and reason, of willpower, and want, and so on. He uses the example of a blind man who can apparently utilize his sense of sight when he dreams, thus indicating that the soul is responsible for the senses, and the body is simply the means by which the soul achieves its goal of obedience to God in corporeal existence.
The relationship between the soul and the body is a complex one. The center of the soul's faculties in the body is the heart, and Saadia cites Scripture to prove it. As long as one has a physical body, they are capable of purifying their soul, for God would not have created anything if not for its own benefit. Saadia expounds upon this principle of divine justice to show that man would not suffer and possibly shorten his life unless it is through his own folly or willed by Good for the sake of the person's ultimate betterment.
